On 20 December 1945, the results of Austria’s first post-war elections are formally announced, with Leopold Figl of the Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP) becoming Chancellor, and Karl Renner of the Socialist Party of Austria (SPÖ) pronounced President.
The elections, which we covered in our 25 November post, are the first held since the start of Allied occupation and have seen a return to Austria’s pre-war political currents. The ÖVP, a center-right Christian-democratic party with roots in the pre-war Christian Social Party, emerged as the dominant force. Its leader, Leopold Figl, embodied Austria’s Catholic and conservative traditions while presenting a vision of economic reconstruction and national unity.
Renner, a seasoned politician who had served as Chancellor and President during the interwar period, symbolizes a continuity for the Socialist Party of Austria (SPÖ). Despite Soviet support for his provisional government after Austria`s liberation, Renner’s pragmatic leadership has gained cross-party acceptance. His election as President is, in many ways, a balancing act between the country’s socialist tradition and a broader rejection of extremist ideologies.
The Soviet-backed Communist Party of Austria (KPÖ), though influential in the immediate post-war provisional government, failed to gain significant public support, securing just 5.4% of the vote and four seats in the National Council, showing the Austrian population’s wariness of communism.
With the ÖVP winning 49.8% of the vote and securing 85 seats in the National Council, Leopold Figl was appointed Chancellor. His leadership signifies a decisive step away from both fascism and communism, aligning Austria’s new government more closely with Western ideals. Figl’s priorities included economic recovery, restoring Austria’s sovereignty, and rebuilding national identity.
The Western Allies, particularly the United States and Britain, have applauded the ÖVP-SPÖ coalition as a positive development, ensuring that Austria would lean toward democratic governance and economic integration with Western Europe.
Picture: New post-war Austrian Government during the swearing-in ceremony.
Source: VIE 1187
On the morning of 19 December 1945, John Amery, British Nazi collaborator and organizer of the Waffen-SS British Free Corps, is executed by hanging for high treason in Wandsworth Prison.
We previously covered Amery and his record-breakingly short 8-minute trial in our 28 November post.
Meanwhile, his father, Leopold Amery, a Conservative MP and a member of Winston Churchill’s wartime cabinet, has been attempting to show that his son is pathologically insane and that his actions do not warrant a death sentence.
Twenty-seven people in Birmingham also signed a petition requesting that John Amery be reprieved, and some reports of him suffering from a severe case of tuberculosis have emerged. Additional examinations on 14 December, including an Electro-Encephalogram at The National Hospital, Queen Square, found no visible signs of physical or mental illness.
On that same day, Field Marshal Jan Smuts, Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa, addressed to British Prime Minister Clement Attlee a telegram reading: ˝Please convey to Mr. Attlee a private and personal message from me as soon as possible in connection with the possible execution of Amery’s son. We have had similar cases in South Africa, in none of which execution has been inflicted, as the acts were more of an ideological than of a criminal character. I am deeply moved by consideration for Amery and his wife, both of whom have deserved well of their country.˝
Attlee replied on 15 December that the matter was solely for the Home Secretary, who has since decided that Amery`s execution is to go ahead.
Albert Pierrepoint, who just finished carrying out the executions of 11 former SS personnel sentenced for war crimes in Bergen-Belsen, which you can read about in our 13 December post, has been selected as the executioner.
Just before 0900 hours this morning, Amery is led to the gallows. Upon seeing Pierrepoint, he excitingly quips: ˝I`ve always wanted to meet you, Mr. Pierrepoint, though not, of course, under these circumstances!˝.
At 0900 hours exactly, Amery is executed.
Picture: Amery, seen here arriving at Palais de Justice concerning the passing of a forged cheque, 1936
Source: Hulton Archive
On 18 December 1945, the British House of Lords rejects the appeal of William Joyce, the Nazi propaganda broadcaster known as `Lord Haw-Haw`, confirming his death sentence for high treason.
Joyce was captured by British forces near Flensburg, Germany, earlier this year. Following his extradition to the UK, he was indicted on charges of high treason under the Treason Act of 1351. The case revolved around his wartime activities as a broadcaster for Radio Hamburg, where he delivered English-language propaganda aimed at undermining British morale.
The prosecution, led by Attorney General Sir Hartley Shawcross, built its case on the fact that Joyce had falsely obtained a British passport in 1939, shortly before leaving for Germany. Though an American by birth, Joyce had claimed British citizenship to acquire the passport, which the Crown argued established a duty of allegiance to Britain under the law. This duty made his actions during the war tantamount to treason.
Joyce’s defense has argued that he owed no true allegiance to Britain, being both American-born and having claimed Irish citizenship. The defense also contended that Joyce’s broadcasts, while inflammatory, were not directly treasonous since they did not incite action against the British Crown. Despite these arguments, the jury found Joyce guilty and sentenced him to death, which you can read more about in our 19 September post.
Joyce`s appeal was first heard by the Court of Appeal, where the defense maintained that Joyce’s obligation of allegiance ceased when his passport expired in 1940. The court, however, dismissed this argument, ruling that his use of the passport to enter Germany established a duty of allegiance.
After the appeal was raised to the House of Lords, the Lords, during their deliberations, emphasized that Joyce had knowingly sworn allegiance to the British Crown by using the falsified passport. By broadcasting propaganda that supported an enemy state, Joyce had clearly acted in breach of this allegiance.
Thus, Joyce is scheduled to be executed by hanging on 3 January.
Picture: Joyce is guarded by two soldiers after his arrest in Germany, May 1945.
Source: Getty Images
On 17 December 1945, Charles Lindbergh, speaking for the first time in public since 1941, advocates for a militarily capable world organization.
Speaking at the Aero Club dinner in Washington, D.C., he says that man`s science has brought him to a choice of whether he will live "in an organized world or in constant insecurity." He views the rapid development of aircraft and the creation of the atomic bomb as turning points that have made it "no longer a question of whether or not we should have a world organization but of what form it should take."
Lindbergh, one of America’s most celebrated aviators, rose to international fame in 1927 for completing the first solo, non-stop transatlantic flight aboard the Spirit of St. Louis. His prominence as a pioneering aviator made him a cultural icon, while his outspoken views on foreign policy during the prelude to World War II drew significant controversy. In his 1941 Des Moines speech, Lindbergh, as a leading figure in the America First Committee, warned against U.S. involvement in the war and blamed British, Jewish, and Roosevelt administration influences for pushing the nation toward conflict.
His address today marks a striking shift in perspective.
He explains his ideas as follows:
"I have advocated tonight a world organization backed by military power, an organization led by western peoples who developed modern science with its aviation and its atomic bomb... But I must confess to you that I am fearful of the use of power. I plead for strong military forces only because I believe the alternative is worse."
He further remarks that such an organization, aimed at controlling the use of aircraft and the atomic bomb, would "mark a greater epoch in human relationships than their invention marked in science. Yet, if we fail, the penalty is staggering. We can succeed only by organizing all nations toward this end."
The form of the organization, Lindbergh says, is less important than the need for it to follow a "Christian code" of "integrity, humility, and compassion that are lacking all over this post-war world."
Picture: Lindbergh speaking before a crowd gathered in Soldier`s Field, August 4th, 1940
Source: AP
On the morning of 16 December 1945, former Japanese Primer Minister Fumimaro Konoe commits suicide ahead of his departure to Sugamo Prison on charges of being a Class A war criminal.
Konoe has taken the information that he is to be arrested as a war criminal, which we covered in our 6 December post, as a great humiliation to him.
Over the last ten days, he has become increasingly anxious, showing signs of potentially planning suicide.
Last night, Konoe had a lengthy conversation with his son Michitaka, who previously searched his father`s room for poison and weapons. Konoe expressed feelings of a deep responsibility toward Emperor Hirohito and the Japanese people in general, further discussing with his son the invasion of China and diplomacy toward the Allied nations. Michitaka wrote some of his father`s thoughts down and then both retired to their rooms to sleep.
This morning, Konoe`s wife and Michitaka discover the former Prime Minister dead in his bed, with a bottle of potassium cyanide next to him.
His family and the SCAP authorities who soon arrive discover a suicide note addressed to his younger brother:
˝I have made many political mistakes since the China Incident. I feel deeply responsible, but I cannot bear to be tried as a so-called war criminal. I made it my greatest mission to resolve the war in China because I felt responsible for it.
I came to the conclusion that the only way to resolve this was to reach an understanding with the U.S., and I made every effort to negotiate with them. It is unfortunate that I am now charged, by the U.S., as a criminal.
However, those who knew my intentions understand. I am sure that there are even some Americans who understand. The excitement and passion of the war, the excessive growth of the winners, the excessive subservience of the losers, the deliberate defamation, and the rumored words and misunderstandings that are based on misunderstandings, someday regain their composure and return to normal. Only then will a judgment of justice be made in God’s court.˝
Picture: U.S. Army lieutenant kneeling by the deathbed of Prince Konoe
Source: LIFE
On 15 December 1945, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) issues the Shinto Directive, formally titled "Abolition of Governmental Sponsorship, Support, Perpetuation, Control, and Dissemination of State Shinto".
Shinto revolves around the worship of kami (sacred spirits) and a deep reverence for nature and ancestors. While Shinto traditionally lacked a centralized dogma, its practices and shrines became instrumental in fostering a sense of unity and national identity during Japan`s modernization in the late 19th century.
With the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Shinto was co-opted by the state to reinforce the authority of the Emperor, now framed as a divine figure descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu. This system transformed Shinto into a nationalist ideology, intertwining religion with political and military governance. State Shinto became a tool for militarism, promoting devotion to the Emperor and legitimizing Japan’s expansionist policies.
The Potsdam Declaration called for the eradication of militarism and the democratization of Japanese society, which is what Gen. MacArthur, as SCAP, seeks to achieve by approving the directive.
The Shinto Directive explicitly prohibits the Japanese government from engaging in any activities that could perpetuate State Shinto, including:
Separation of State and Religion: The directive mandates the cessation of government funding and support for Shinto shrines. "Shinto shrines shall not receive preferential treatment from the state."
Prohibition of Compulsory Practices: It outlaws the use of State Shinto practices in public education, military indoctrination, and civil ceremonies.
Educational Reform: Schools are instructed to revise their curricula to eliminate teachings that link Shinto with state ideology or militarism.
Freedom of Religion: The directive ensures that individuals could freely practice Shinto as a private faith, alongside other religions such as Buddhism or Christianity.
Picture: Japanese Torii gate survives the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, September 1945
Source: Harry S. Truman Library and Archive
On 14 December 1945, British Indian troops and RAF aircraft attack the town of Bekasi in retaliation for the murder of 23 British and Indian soldiers by Indonesian nationalists.
The ongoing violence in Indonesia has brought about the worst behaviors from both the Indonesian nationalist troops and militias, as well as the British Indian troops sent in to facilitate the disarming of remaining Japanese troops, repatriate Allied POWs, and calm revolutionary tensions.
The brutal fight in Surabaya, covered in our 9 and 10 November posts, has led to thousands of dead Indonesian troops and civilians, while increasingly Indonesian militias have attacked British forces across Java.
A particularly grim attack happened on 24 November, when Indonesian nationalists apparently identifying themselves as the `Black Buffalos` murdered 18 Indian soldiers and 4 RAF airmen after their C-47 Dakota plane crashed near the town of Bekasi, some 13 km (8 mi) from Batavia.
In response to that, British Indian forces have been preparing over the last several days an operation aimed at finding and arresting those responsible for the murders.
Today at dawn, RAF P-47 Thunderbolts and Mosquito fighter bombers relentlessly strafe and bomb the town with high-explosive and incendiary munitions. With no forewarning given to the residents, except for ethnic Chinese who marked their houses with flags, many are caught up in the blasts and resulting fires.
Soon after the air attack stops, the 1st and 16th Punjab Regiments enter the town, supported by tanks, and begin a systematic search for armed resistance. They quickly eliminate small groups of armed Indonesian militia fighters and arrest others. As they move through the village they pour gasoline and set fire to all homes and buildings, bar the ones in the Chinese settlement.
Indonesian leaders immediately condemn the reprisal, citing that they will now have an even harder time preventing the militias and youth groups from launching attacks on Allied forces.
British officials seem convinced that this action will have a pacifying effect.
Picture: Men of the Bengal Sappers and Miners burn houses in the village of Bekassi
Source: IWM SE 6050
On 13 December 1945, Britain`s official executioner, Albert Pierrepoint, hangs the 11 SS personnel convicted in the trial for crimes in the Bergen-Belsen and Auschwitz concentration camps.
Following the reading of their death sentences at the end of the trial in Lüneburg last month, which you can read about in our 17 November post, the condemned were returned to their cells. They filed an appeal directly to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, who summarily rejected them on 8 December, clearing the way for the executions to proceed.
Three days ago, on 10 December, the 11 individuals sentenced to death were transported to Hamelin Prison, some 160 km (100 mi) south of Hamburg. This group consists of 8 men and three women, all of whom had been found guilty of atrocities, including torture, abuse, and mass murder at the concentration camps they operated: Josef Kramer,
Fritz Klein, Peter Weingärtner, Franz Hössler, Karl Franzioh, Ansgar Pichen, Franz Stofel (or Stärfl), Wilhelm Dörr, Irma Grese, Elisabeth Volkenrath, and Johanna Bormann.
The execution process begins this morning just before 0930 hours. Pierrepoint, experienced in carrying out capital sentences, has devised an efficient system for the day. He has decided to execute the women individually and the men in pairs, minimizing delays between hangings.
The first to face the gallows at 0934 hours is Volkenrath, the head female warden of Bergen-Belsen.
Shortly after that, at 1003 hours, Grese is led to the gallows. Maintaining her defiance and conviction until the end she simply shouts `Schell` as Pierrepoint adjusts the noose around her neck.
After Grese and Bormann, the executions of the men proceed in pairs.
Kramer and Dr. Klein are executed at 1219 hours. With the bodies left to hang for 20 minutes, the executions last until almost 1600 hours.
Finally, the bodies of the executed are buried in the courtyard of Hamelin Prison.
Picture: Major T. C. M. Winwood, Josef Kramer`s Defence Council, speaking to him at the courtroom in Luneburg, 19 September 1945
Source: IWM AP 281835
On 12 December 1945, U.S. Secretary of State James F. Byrnes issues a statement outlining American economic policy towards Germany under the terms of the Potsdam Declaration.
Byrnes begins by noting that six years of war and Nazi aggression had left the nation’s cities, industry, and transport infrastructure in ruins. He stresses that while the German people bear primary responsibility for their dire situation, U.S. policy aims to balance reparation demands with the prevention of starvation and the future recovery of Europe.
He outlines a policy that will progress through four periods - an emergency period (1945–1946), which has seen and will see immediate efforts focused on preventing starvation and facilitating coal exports to liberated European areas; a transitional Period (1946–1948) of rebuilding essential industries and transport while continuing reparations; and finally long-term recovery (Post-1948) by ensuring German resources promote civilian welfare and economic parity with continental Europe, excluding the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom.
To facilitate this, Byrnes defines the four main aims of U.S. policy and that of the occupation authorities on the matter:
1. The U.S. will prioritize shipping coal to liberated European nations to bolster their recovery, even at the expense of delaying Germany’s economic recovery. He acknowledges that "the rate of economic recovery in Europe depends upon the coal supplies available over this winter."
2. Machinery is being established to execute reparations agreements by February 1946, focusing on defining which industries and resources would remain in Germany and which would be removed or dismantled.
3. Establishment of German agencies for finance, trade, and industry to ensure economic functionality under Allied supervision.
4. The ration level for German civilians will be set at 1,550 calories per day, with substantial food imports arranged to prevent mass starvation during the harsh winter.
Picture: Trümmerfrauen - women clear rubble and recycle bricks outside the Reichstag, Berlin
Source: Getty Images
On 11 December 1945, the `Pacusan Dreamboat`, a Boeing B-29 Superfortress piloted by Colonel Clarence S. Irvine, sets a record by flying from California to New York in just under five and a half hours.
Now that the war that has pushed unprecedented development in aircraft technology and the emergence of jet-engined planes is over, many have turned to test the limits of their designs and flight skills.
Just recently, RAF Group Captain Hugh J. Wilson, flying a Gloster Meteor F.4 named `Britannia`, set the first official jet aircraft speed record by reaching 970 km/h or 600 mph, which you can read about in our 7 November post.
In America, Boeing and the USAAF have also been working on proving even further the capabilities of their flagship heavy bomber - the B-29.
In recent weeks, a B-29B-60-BA Superfortress, built at Marietta, Georgia, with the serial number 44-84061, has been undergoing special modifications to aid it in flying as quickly and as far as possible.
The lightweight B-29B variant, designed for operations at lower altitudes, retains only one of the B-29`s four radar-directed 20mm gun turrets and two .50-calibre machine guns in the tail. Further weight reductions have been achieved by removing much of the armour plating. Well, the custom modifications to the Pacusan Dreamboat have taken this a step further by removing all defensive armaments and protection, as well as reshaping the tail for better aerodynamics. This has resulted in the Pacusan`s empty weight being only 29,937 kg (66,000 lbs) as opposed to the 31,298 kg (69,000 lbs) of a standard Superfortress. Fitted with additional fuel tanks capable of taking 37,854 litres (10,000 gals), it was set to break records.
Today, Irvine and his crew, W.J. Benett, G.F. Broughton, Dock West, W.S. O’Hara, F.S. O’Leary, K.L. Royer, F.J. Shannon, J.A. Shinnault, G.R. Stanley, fly the Pacusan Dreamboat from Long Beach to Floyd Bennet Field in New York at an average speed of 724.82 km/h (450.38 mph).
Their exact flight time is 5 hours, 27 minutes, and 8 seconds, making this a record for the B-29.
Picture: Bell-Atlanta B-29B-60-BA Superfortress 44-84061, the Pacusan Dreamboat.
Source: U.S. Air Force
On 10 December 1945, SS-Hauptsturmführer Theodor Dannecker, one of Adolf Eichmann`s top aides in handling deportations of Jews, hangs himself in his cell while in U.S. custody in Bad Tölz, Germany.
Dannecker joined the SS in 1932 and then the Nazi Party in 1933 at the age of 20. By 1934, he was working for the SD (Sicherheitsdienst). His dedication to the party and early assignments drew the attention of Adolf Eichmann, a pivotal figure in the orchestration of the Holocaust. By 1939, Dannecker had become one of Eichmann’s most trusted aides in the SD`s Department of Jewish Affairs.
In 1940, Dannecker was assigned to France, where he headed the Jewish Affairs Office in Paris. He played a central role in organizing the deportation of Jews from France, working closely with French collaborators to implement anti-Jewish legislation and coordinate roundups. Dannecker oversaw the deportation of over 42,000 Jews from French territory to Auschwitz and other extermination camps. His zeal for efficiency in executing deportations earned him a reputation as one of Eichmann’s most effective subordinates.
Dannecker`s expertise was subsequently employed in Bulgaria in 1943, where he pressured the Bulgarian government to deport its Jewish population. Although local resistance prevented the deportation of Bulgarian Jews, Dannecker successfully arranged the deportation of 11,343 Jews from Bulgarian-occupied Thrace and Macedonia to Nazi extermination camps.
In late 1943, Dannecker was sent to Italy to oversee the deportation of Jews. During the summer of 1944, he was posted to Hungary, where he assisted in the murder of around 400,000 Jews. He returned to Italy in October 1944, where he was appointed Jewish Commissar for Italy.
As the Third Reich collapsed and the Allied occupation of Germany developed, Dannecker attempted to evade capture. However, U.S. troops apprehended him in Bavaria several days ago.
Today, Dannecker hangs himself in his cell, evading the justice that awaits many of his peers at the Nuremberg Trials.
Picture: Theodor Dannecker oversees the transfer of the rounded-up Jews to the Austerlitz station
Source: Harry Croner via Memorial de la Shoah
On 9 December 1945, General George S. Patton is severely injured in an automobile accident in Mannheim, Germany.
Since General Eisenhower transferred Patton from 3rd Army command as a result of his conduct and comments over denazification, which you can read about in our 28 and 22 September posts, respectively, the general has spent getting accustomed to commanding the 15th Army from his headquarters in Bad Nauheim.
However, Patton`s constant touring of France, writing for his book ˝War As I Knew It˝ and general distance from command duties have made it clear he has little interest in the 15th`s task of gathering historical data on Allied operations.
General Hobart “Hap” Gay, Patton`s loyal friend and chief of staff, along with other officers, have also noted a sharp decline in his morale and mood, leading to his decision to retire after his Christmas leave to the USA.
Yesterday evening, in an attempt to cheer Patton up, Gen. Gay suggested that they spend the following day pheasant hunting. Patton enthusiastically agreed.
Around 0900 hours today, they set off from Bad Nauheim in Patton`s 1939 Model 75 Cadillac limousine with Pfc. Horace Woodring behind the wheel. Technical Sergeant Joe Spruce follows them in a Jeep loaded with hunting rifles and supplies.
At 1145 hours, as they enter an intersection in the northeast suburbs of Mannheim, a U.S. Army 2.5-ton GMC truck turns across the path of the Cadillac while attempting to make it to the Quartermaster depot.
Woodring and Gay brace for the impact and receive only minor injuries. Patton, who had been distracted at the moment, slams his head against the glass divider between the front and rear seats.
An ambulance rushes Patton to the 130th Station Hospital in nearby Heidelberg at 1245 hours. Upon further examination, doctors discover that he has suffered a fracture of the third cervical vertebra and a dislocation of the fourth, with either a cut or severely traumatized spinal cord.
In the evening, doctors place Patton in traction in an attempt to stabilize his neck while specialists are on their way to provide further treatment.
Picture: Soldier inspects the wreck of Patton`s Cadillac
Source: U.S. Army
On 8 December 1945, General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), issues an order to prosecute General Masaharu Homma, former commander of the Japanese 14th Army, and others responsible for the Bataan Death March.
After the surrender of approximately 75,000 American and Filipino troops to the Japanese following the fall of Bataan in April 1942, the Japanese forced the captured troops to march from Mariveles to San Fernando, a distance of some 105 km (65 mi), after which they were loaded onto trains and transported to POW camps.
Conditions during the march were inhumane. Prisoners, already weakened by months of combat and starvation, died from dehydration, disease, beatings, and outright killings. The killings, however, had been primarily orchestrated by Colonel Masanobu Tsuji, who, acting against General Homma`s wishes that the prisoners be transferred peacefully, had issued clandestine orders to Japanese officers to summarily execute all American prisoners.
Thus, there is debate about the degree of Homma’s direct involvement, as field reports suggest he may not have been fully aware of the extent of the abuses during the march. However, as we have seen in other trials, particularly that of General Tomoyuki Yamashita, whose sentencing to death we covered in yesterday`s post, Homma`s position as the commanding officer is likely to yield a guilty sentence under the principle of command responsibility.
Since Homma`s surrender, arrest, and extradition to the Philippines this September, U.S. prosecutors have been gathering testimonies and evidence which paint a picture of widespread atrocities. Estimates place the death toll between 5,000 and 18,000, including both Filipino and American POWs.
MacArthur’s order today specifically targets Homma, Colonel Tsuji, whose whereabouts are unknown, and two of Homma`s subordinates, Major General Yoshitaka Kawane and Colonel Kurataro Hirano.
Homma`s trial is set to begin within a month at the High Commissioner`s Residence in Manila, where Yamashita was handed his death sentence yesterday.
Picture: Gen. Homma during the invasion of the Philippines
Source: U.S. Naval History and Heritage Command
On 7 December 1945, the U.S. Military Commission in Manilla sentences General Tomoyuki Yamashita, former commander of Japanese forces in the Philippines, to death.
Since the start of the trial, which we covered in our 29 October post, the prosecution has argued that Yamashita, as commander of the 14th Area Army, bears ultimate responsibility for the actions of his subordinates. This legal argument has hinged on the principle that a commander must prevent war crimes committed by troops under their control.
Yamashita’s defence, led by Colonel Harry E. Clarke Sr., has attempted to argue that Yamashita had no meaningful control over the forces in Manila, as communications and command structures had broken down. They cited logistical challenges, the chaos of retreat, and the decentralized operations as reasons why Yamashita could not have been aware of or prevented the atrocities.
The defence and some outside observers have also contended that the tribunal has failed to provide due process, alleging that Yamashita was denied adequate time to prepare his case and that procedural rules heavily favoured the prosecution. Furthermore, they argued that applying the principle of command responsibility retroactively to actions committed during wartime is legally questionable.
Yamashita shared his views as well:
˝My command was as big as MacArthur`s or Lord Louis Mountbatten`s. How could I tell if some of my soldiers misbehaved themselves? It was impossible for any man in my position to control every action of his subordinate commanders, let alone the deeds of individual soldiers... If they had happened, and I had known about them, I would have punished the wrongdoers severely. But in war someone has to lose. What I am really being charged with is losing the war. It could have happened to General MacArthur, you know.˝
Nevertheless, the Commission delivers its decision today: death by hanging.
Five of the six lawyers of the defence counsel will appeal the decision to the Supreme Court of the United States.
Picture: Yamashita faces the military Commission as he is sentenced to death by hanging by Major General Russell Reynolds
Source: AP
On 6 December 1945, General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), issues an order for the arrest of former Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe.
Fumimaro Konoe, born into a prominent aristocratic family in 1891, held significant sway in Japanese politics. He served as Prime Minister in three terms: 1937–1939, 1940–1941, and briefly in 1945. Konoe’s first premiership saw Japan escalate its imperial ambitions, including the invasion of China in 1937 and the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War. Despite efforts to maintain diplomatic relations with Western powers, Konoe’s government pursued aggressive expansionism under the influence of military factions.
By his third term, Konoe grew increasingly sceptical of Japan’s ability to sustain a war against the United States. In 1941, he resigned, believing he could not prevent war due to opposition from the militarists, clearing a path for General Hideki Tojo to take the position of Prime Minister.
Following Japan’s surrender, Konoe positioned himself as a moderate figure, advocating for reforms to distance the nation from its militarist past. In October, he submitted a memorandum to Emperor Hirohito, suggesting that the Emperor should abdicate to preserve the imperial institution. This proposal was deeply controversial and alienated him from both SCAP and Japanese conservatives.
MacArthur and his advisers are determined to maintain Hirohito’s position as a stabilizing figure in post-war Japan, as was confirmed by MacArthur`s assurance that Hirohito will not be forced to abdicate, covered in our 26 November post. Finally, Konoe has refused to collaborate with U.S. Army officer Bonner Fellers in `Operation Blacklist` to exonerate Hirohito and the imperial family of criminal responsibility.
MacArthur’s decision today follows the pattern of arrests, which we discussed in our 2 December post, with many high-ranking officials or industrialists holding positions during the critical years leading to Japan`s aggression suspected of being Class A war criminals.
Picture: Industrialist Ryozo Asano (right) chatting with Prince Fumimaro Konoe, October 1945
Source: LIFE
On 5 December 1945, Flight 19, a group of five Grumman TBM Avenger torpedo bombers, disappears during a routine training flight off the coast of Florida.
Flight 19 forms today as part of the U.S. Navy’s Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale’s (NASFL) training operations. Lieutenant Charles C. Taylor (FT-28), an experienced pilot with a combat tour in the Pacific under his belt, leads the flight. Each aircraft carries three men.
The exercise scheduled for today is a dead reckoning navigation training mission known as "Navigation Problem No. 1". The plan is to fly east from NASFL to Hens and Chickens Shoals, practice bombing runs, and then turn north before heading back southwest to the base. The expected flight duration is about three hours.
At 1410 hours, Flight 19 takes off from NASFL in near-perfect weather.
They complete their bombing practice around 1500 hours. However, 40 minutes later, Taylor asks one of his students for a compass bearing, believing his own is malfunctioning. He incorrectly concludes that they are over the Florida Keys and orders a turn northeast to locate land.
The other pilots increasingly begin to question Taylor`s navigation and suggest heading west. Taylor insists on maintaining a northeast course. Meanwhile, the weather worsens, and the fading daylight complicates navigation.
At 1750 hours, Taylor’s transmissions indicate desperation: "We are not certain where we are... We must have got lost after that last turn." Radio operators attempt to direct the flight west, but communication becomes increasingly sporadic.
At 1820, the last transmission reaches land: "All planes close up tight... We`ll have to ditch unless landfall... When the first plane drops below 10 gallons, we all go down together."
A PBM Mariner designated Training 49, is dispatched to locate the missing aircraft. Tragically, the rescue plane explodes mid-air shortly after taking off, likely due to a loose fuel line.
The U.S. Navy will launch an extensive search involving over 240 planes and 18 ships. No wreckage from Flight 19 or the rescue plane will ever be recovered.
Picture: TBF`s flying in formation. Fort Lauderdale, Fla
Source: U.S. National Archives 520767
On 4 December 1945, the U.S. Senate passes the United Nations Participation Act, formally committing the United States to active membership in the newly established United Nations (UN).
The active participation and sponsorship of the USA in forming the UN has marked a profound shift in American foreign policy thinking in the last two decades. Unlike its rejection of the League of Nations after World War I, the U.S. now recognizes the necessity of global cooperation to prevent future conflicts and maintain peace. The debates leading up to the Act’s passage have centred on ensuring that U.S. sovereignty is protected while enabling the country to fulfil its international responsibilities.
The Act authorizes the President to appoint representatives to the UN General Assembly and other organs, subject to Senate approval and empowers him to negotiate and implement agreements on behalf of the U.S. within the framework of the UN.
Article 6 of the Act specifies the requirements for any U.S. participation in UN military operations, including troop contributions to UN peacekeeping forces, requires Congressional approval. This reflects concerns over maintaining Congressional oversight on matters of war and peace. However, it does provide the President with the direct authority to make available to the Security Council on its call the forces necessary to carry out the special actions, which `may include demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United Nations.` specified under Article 42 of the UN Charter.
The Act acknowledges the importance of U.S. involvement in the Economic and Social Council and other UN agencies to address global economic disparities and promote development while ensuring that the U.S. will meet its financial obligations as a UN member state, allocating resources for the organization’s operations.
The Senate approves the act with a 65 to 7 vote, showing that a broad consensus exists on the importance of the U.S. role in global affairs.
Picture: Secretary of State James Byrnes looks on as President Truman signs the UN Charter, 8 August 1945.
Source: AP
On 3 December 1945, the Arab League votes to boycott all goods produced in Jewish Palestine.
Tensions have risen to unprecedented levels recently in Mandatory Palestine and the Middle East in general, with anti-Jewish riots erupting in multiple cities, as we`ve covered in our 2 and 4 November posts. Meanwhile, groups such as the Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi, united under the name Jewish Resistance Movement, has been targeting the British administration in Palestine with bombings and shootings.
Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen, who established the Arab League this March, have been seeking to consolidate Arab efforts to counter Zionism and support the Palestinian Arab population while preventing the formation of a Jewish state in Palestine amidst accelerating Jewish immigration into the area.
At the League`s meeting today, all seven members unanimously adopt a resolution calling for a boycott of goods produced by Jewish businesses and industries in Palestine. This measure is squarely aimed at weakening the economic foundation of the Jewish community, which has grown substantially in strength and organization during the British Mandate. The official stance of the Arab League is thus: `Jewish products and manufactured [goods] in Palestine shall be [considered] undesirable in the Arab countries; to permit them to enter the Arab countries would lead to the realization of the Zionist political objectives.`
The boycott targets agricultural products, manufactured goods, and other commodities associated with Jewish enterprises. It also urged Arab citizens and businesses to cease any trade or cooperation with Jewish entities, reflecting the broader strategy of isolating the Jewish community economically and politically.
Jewish leaders denounce the boycott as an unjust and discriminatory measure, pointing to the economic interdependence of Jewish and Arab communities within Palestine. British authorities, already struggling to maintain order in the region, view the boycott as further complicating their administration of the Mandate.
Picture: Representatives of seven Arab states in Cairo, 29 May 1946
Source: AP
On 2 December 1945, General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander Allied Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), orders the arrest of Prince Nashimoto Morimasa, the second most senior member of the Japanese Imperial Family and chief priest of the Grand Shrine of Ise, as a `Class A` war criminal.
As we covered in our recent 26 November post, MacArthur announced Hirohito will not be forced to abdicate, and thus would most likely avoid any persecution for war crimes. However, this has not prevented the persecution and arrest of Japanese military leaders on a large scale.
Meanwhile, the Japanese Imperial Diet has been preparing to discuss the responsibility for the war and defeat, continuing on from the questions posed by Hashito Asada, a representative from the `orthodox` wing of the Rikken Seiyūkai Party, during the 88th Imperial Diet Session, which we covered on 5 September.
With the question of how far SCAP will cast the net of arrests for war crimes, and with Hirohito`s position secured, the 89th Imperial Diet opened on 26 November.
By yesterday, the issue of war responsibility was put down to a vote on two bills following a four-day-long debate. While the bill that was passed essentially reflected the view that war responsibility had to include more people, not one high-level Japanese politician stood up in the Diet to clearly acknowledge Japan`s responsibility for wars of aggression or war crimes. Like the accused `Class A` war criminals, most politicians
feel that they cannot be guilty of anything because they obeyed the Emperor, who was, by definition, moral.
Today, SCAP places the responsibility on them regardless. MacArthur orders the arrest of 59 war crimes suspects, including Prince Nashimoto, primarily for his role in supporting State Shintoism, Premier Koki Hirota, and Baron Kiichiro Hiranuma. Others include officials of state institutions, top-level industrialists, and many members of the lower and upper Diet houses.
Picture: 71-year-old Prince Nashimoto Morimasa after his arrest, 7 December 1945
Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France
On 1 December 1945, a U.S. Army firing squad executes German General Anton Dostler in Aversa, Italy.
Dostler is the second German officer sentenced to death for war crimes and the first after the end of the war, following the execution of Hauptmann Curt Burns by the U.S. Army on 15 June this year for the shooting of two Jewish-American soldiers.
Dostler`s case was pretty straightforward, as we covered in our 12 October post, with him signing off on the order to execute 15 OSS operatives captured while carrying out Operation Ginny II, which we, in turn, covered in our 22 and 26 March posts from last year.
Similar to several other German and Japanese war criminals, Dostler`s defence of following superior orders meant little to the U.S. Army military tribunal in Caserta. Granted, then commanding general of all German forces in Italy, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, who is currently held in a POW camp, is yet to be prosecuted for giving the execution order.
This morning, Dostler is led to the execution spot in his full general`s uniform and his hands are tied to a stake behind his back.
Multiple war correspondents record and photograph the proceedings from multiple angles.
Just before 0800 hours, a 12-man U.S. Army firing squad assembles.
A U.S. Army chaplain reads Dostler his last rites, and a black hood is placed over the convicted general`s head.
Precisely at 0800 hours, the firing squad is ordered to shoot.
Dostler is carried away on a stretcher, shrouded inside a white cotton mattress cover, and driven away in an army truck.
Later in the day, his body is buried in Grave 93/95 of Section H at the Pomezia German War Cemetery.
Picture: German General Anton Dostler is tied to a stake before his execution by a firing squad in the Aversa stockade. 1 December 1945
Source: U.S. National Archives 531326
On 30 November 1945, during a session of the Nuremberg Trials, Rudolf Hess, Adolf Hitler’s former deputy, makes a surprising declaration, reversing his long-standing claim of amnesia.
Since his capture in May 1941, Hess had insisted he suffered from retrograde amnesia, stating he had no memory of his political career or actions as Hitler`s deputy.
However, evaluations by psychiatrists Douglas M. Kelley and Gustave M. Gilbert, as well as by the physicians of the Soviet Delegation and by Professor Delay, the medical expert of the French Delegation, revealed otherwise. Kelley noted Hess’s behaviour was erratic but deliberate, describing him as paranoid and hypochondriacal. Gilbert confirmed Hess’s actions were more consistent with feigned memory loss than genuine mental illness.
Hess’s memory lapses were suspiciously selective. He recalled personal details while conveniently "forgetting" politically incriminating activities. Observers in court and experts increasingly questioned the authenticity of his amnesia.
Today, around 1600 hours, the President of the International Military Tribunal, Sir Geoffrey Lawrence, orders the quarter guard to withdraw all the defendants except Hess.
Sir Lawrence and Roman Rudenko, chief Soviet prosecutor, French judge Henri Donnedieu de Vabres, and Robert Jackson, chief U.S. prosecutor, all suspect Hess of using his claimed amnesia as a way to evade sentencing and enter into a 1.5-hour-long discussion with Dr. Günther von Rohrscheidt, counsel for Hess.
During a moment of silence, Hess suddenly stands and declares:
˝I wish to say the following: in order to forestall the possibility of my being pronounced incapable of pleading... I would like to make the following declaration before the Tribunal... Henceforth my memory will again respond to the outside world. The reasons for simulating loss of memory were of a tactical nature... I emphasise that I bear full responsibility for everything that I did, signed or co-signed. My fundamental attitude is that the Tribunal is not competent, is not affected by the statement I have just made...˝
Picture: Hess and Joachim von Ribbentrop at Nuremberg
Source: Harry S. Truman Library and Museum
On 29 November 1945, the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia is formally proclaimed at the first session of the Constituent Assembly in Belgrade, marking the official abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a federal socialist state under Josip Broz Tito’s leadership.
The recent elections, which we covered in our 11 November post, have resulted in an overwhelming victory for the People`s Front of Yugoslavia in the two-chamber Constituent Assembly, receiving 6,725.047 votes - 90,48% - for the Federal Assembly and 6.574.975 - 88,69% for the People`s Assembly.
King Peter II Karađorđević has been one of the most outspoken critics of the elections, calling them a farce and a mockery of the free will of the people.
Nevertheless, the Constituent Assembly begins its historic session today by voting to abolish the monarchy and formally depose King Peter II Karađorđević, who had been in exile since the start of the war. In the place of the monarchy place, the multi-ethnic Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) is declared.
The new federal state is set to be structured around six constituent republics - Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Macedonia.
Each republic will be granted theoretical autonomy to manage its internal affairs, particularly concerning cultural and linguistic matters. This federal system is intended to balance the competing national aspirations within the country, reducing the centralization that had fueled tensions in the pre-war Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
The Constituent Assembly also begins the process of drafting a new Constitution. Heavily inspired by the Soviet model, the new Constitution is set to establish a one-party system with two levels of authority:
Federal Government: Led by Tito, who is confirmed as both Prime Minister and the dominant figure in the government.
Republic Governments: Each republic is granted its own Constitution, legislature, and executive bodies, though all remain subordinate to federal authorities.
Picture: Federal Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito signs the Declaration on the Proclamation of the Republic
Source: Savo Orović, war diary 1941-1945, Belgrade 1972
On 28 November 1945, John Amery, a British Nazi collaborator and organizer of the Waffen-SS British Free Corps, is sentenced to death for high treason.
Amery was born in 1903 into a prominent political family - his father, Leopold Amery, is a Conservative MP and a member of Winston Churchill’s wartime cabinet. Despite his privileged upbringing, his life was marked by financial recklessness, personal scandal, and radical politics.
He left Britain permanently to live in France after being declared bankrupt in 1936, where he met French fascist leader Jacques Doriot, with whom he travelled to Austria, Italy, and Germany to witness the effects of fascism in those countries. By the late 1930s, Amery had developed strong anti-communist and pro-Nazi views.
With the help of Hauptmann Werner Plack, Amery travelled to Berlin in September 1942 and met with the German English Committee. Hitler was supposedly impressed with Amery and allowed him to remain to broadcast anti-Allied and pro-Nazi messages over the radio.
In 1943, Amery travelled to France, where he led the formation and recruitment of the British Free Corps, a unit of the Waffen-SS composed of British POWs. The unit attracted only a small number of recruits, and Amery`s links to it unit ended in late 1943.
Italian partisans captured Amery on 25 April 1945 near Como, Italy, where he had spent several months assisting Mussolini by broadcasting propaganda. He was handed over to British authorities and transported to London.
In a preliminary hearing this July, Amery claimed he was not a Nazi, but merely an anti-Communist, while his brother attempted to prove he had become a Spanish citizen and thus couldn`t stand trial for treason in Britain.
Since then, Amery`s defence counsel, Gerald Osborne Slade KC, has been unsuccessful in attempting to show Amery is mentally unfit to stand trial.
Today, at the very beginning of the trial, Amery unexpectedly pleads guilty to treason. This makes legal proceedings brief. After a record-breaking eight-minute hearing, Mr. Justice Humphreys sentences Amery to death by hanging.
Picture: Amery and Michelle Thomas in Milan after their capture
Source: British Army
On 27 November 1945, Patrick J. Hurley abruptly resigns as U.S. Ambassador to China, ending a tumultuous tenure that has underscored the growing complexities of the Chinese Civil War and the limitations of U.S. diplomacy in mediating between the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
Hurley, a World War I veteran and former U.S. Secretary of War, was appointed ambassador to China by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944. Hurley’s mission reflected Roosevelt’s hopes for post-war cooperation in China and his desire to support Chiang Kai-shek as the leader of a unified, democratic China. This goal became increasingly challenging as the CCP, led by Mao Zedong, grew in strength during the war against Japan, positioning itself as a rival to Chiang’s government.
Hurley arrived in China with a mandate to mediate between the KMT and CCP, aiming to forge a political coalition that would prevent civil war and bolster China’s position as a key ally in the emerging post-war world order. However, his approach quickly became problematic.
Hurley`s initial successes included facilitating face-to-face negotiations between Chiang and Mao in Chongqing in August 1945 following Japan’s surrender. On the surface, these talks led to some agreements but have, in reality, been used by both the CCP and KMT to better their position militarily.
Critics, including some within his own staff, have accused him of showing favouritism toward Chiang and the KMT, alienating the CCP and undermining his role as a neutral mediator. His brash and undiplomatic demeanour has strained relationships with both Chinese leaders and fellow American officials.
Today, two hours after completing a meeting with President Truman during which he complained that too many "China Hands" in the State Department were sympathetic to Chinese communism, he submits a scathing letter of resignation. He criticizes liberal diplomats and lashes out against the `imperialist` European powers, whom he accuses of seeking to maintain their empires in Asia at the expense of American interests.
Picture: Hurley with Mao Zedong at a conference at Yan`an Communist Headquarters
Source: U.S. National Archives
On 26 November 1945, General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander Allied Commader for the Allied Powers (SCAP), confirms that Emperor Showa of Japan, Hirohito, will not be forced to abdicate the throne.
Most of the Allies, both their political leadership and the public, want Hirohito to be severely punished and tried as a war criminal. MacArthur, on the other hand, has fully embraced the idea of protecting the kokutai and using Hirohito to legitimize the sweeping reforms to the Japanese political and economic system, as well as society, that he recently announced, which you can read about in our 11 October post.
As SCAP, he would ensure Hirohito remained as Emperor, but would be entirely removed from the militarists and be a figurehead for the people to look up to. One of the major elements of this has been the attempt to present responsibility for the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor as the responsibility of former Prime Minister Hideki Tojo.
Meanwhile, SCAP has been working for the past two months on dismantling the military structures that Hirohito officially commanded to do complete this separation.
Yet, the image of Hirohito as a uniformed, supreme generalissimo of a militarized nation remained. Thus, Hirohito`s advisors sought to break down this image and bring him in line with SCAP`s reimagining of the Japanese political system.
Thus, for most of this month, Hirohito has been, with SCAP permission, visiting national Shinto shrines of his imperial ancestors, especially those in Ise and Kyoto, appearing in a civilian suit wherever he went. To further this transition, two days ago, the Asahi reported that the imperial portrait would be retrieved from display in all schools, government offices, and overseas embassies and consulates. The Imperial Household Ministry planned a new portrait as a replacement, which the Emperor would
eventually `bestow` on the nation.
In line with MacArthur`s policies and in support of Hirohito`s `transformation`, GHQ-SCAP issues an announcement today confirming that Hirohito will remain on the throne.
Picture: Hirohito stands in his special railcar during the visit to one of the shrines, November 1945
Source: Getty Images
On 25 November 1945, Austria holds its first post-war legislative elections under Allied occupation.
Austria, much like Germany, has been the stage on which the increasingly serious rift between the West and East has been showing, with the Soviet Union pushing for indirect control over the country.
Despite major backing from the Soviet Union for communist elements, including the formation of the Austrian provisional government with Karl Renner as the Chancellor, the political system of the country has returned in many ways to the pre-Nazi situation, with three parties emerging to contest the elections:
1. Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP): A centre-right, Christian-democratic party that traced its roots to the pre-war Christian Social Party.
2. Socialist Party of Austria (SPÖ): A centre-left party rooted in the pre-war Social Democratic Workers` Party.
3. Communist Party of Austria (KPÖ): Strongly supported by the Soviet Union but with limited popular backing among Austrians.
The elections have been a major question for the U.S., as we covered in our 30 September post, when General Mark W. Clark, U.S. Military Commissioner for Austria, reported that Renner has been working to hold elections under significant pressure from the Soviets.
Today, the Austrian people cast their votes. Voting eligibility is decided based on the 1929 election law, allowing all persons aged at least 21 to vote. However, former Nazi Party members, estimated at around 200,000, are forbidden from voting.
The election results will demonstrate a preference for stability, continuity with Austria’s pre-war traditions, and scepticism toward communism, with the ÖVP and SPÖ emerging as the dominant parties, with 85 seats in the National Council and 49.8% of the vote and 76 seats and 44.6% of the vote, respectively. The KPÖ will win only 4 seats with 5.4%.
Picture: First general elections in Austria (25 November 1945)
Source: Österreichische Nationalbibliothek
On 24 November 1945, U.S. occupation forces dismantle and destroy all cyclotrons in Japan under orders by Supreme Allied Forces Commander (SCAP) General Douglas MacArthur and Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson.
Japan`s atomic research began to take shape in the late 1930s, primarily led by Yoshio Nishina, a physicist who had previously studied under Niels Bohr in Copenhagen. Nishina, based at the RIKEN Institute (Institute of Physical and Chemical Research) in Tokyo, spearheaded efforts to construct cyclotrons.
The first cyclotrons, a 660mm (26-inch) unit and a large 1.5m (60-inch) unit, were produced under Nishina`s direction in 1936 and 1937, respectively. The following year, another unit was purchased from the University of California, Berkeley.
Nishina himself did recognize the military potential of nuclear fission in 1939. The Imperial Japanese Navy was the first to begin looking into this, under the "B-Research" (also called "Jin Project", lit. "Nuclear Project"). However, by December 1942, the Navy lost interest and shifted to other projects. The F-Go Project, under Bunsaku Arakatsu at the Imperial University, Kyoto, similarly failed to yield significant results.
The Imperial Japanese Army`s Ni-Go Project at RIKEN got slightly further, even producing a tiny amount of atomic material in early 1945. Still, all hopes of weapons development were ended when the building in which this was produced was burned down during the catastrophic USAAF firebombing of Tokyo on 9/10 March.
U.S. investigations found that the Japanese atomic weapons program went nowhere, and U.S. military authorities initially granted Nishina`s request of 16 October to continue using the two cyclotrons at RIKEN for research.
However, on 10 November, the decision was reversed when a SCAP directive based on Patterson`s instructions to destroy the cyclotrons was issued.
Yesterday, U.S. Army engineers began dismantling two cyclotrons at the Osaka Imperial University, one at Kyoto University, and the two at RIKEN.
Today, they scuttle the remains of the RIKEN cyclotrons in Tokyo Bay.
Picture: The second, 1.5m, Riken cyclotron.
Source: Nishina Center for Accelerator-Based Science
On 23 November 1945, British police open fire on crowds demonstrating against the trial of Indian National Army officers and for Indian independence in Calcutta.
By 1943 and 1944, court martial trials were taking place in India of former personnel of the British Indian Army who were captured fighting in INA ranks or working in support of the INA`s subversive activities, thus directly or indirectly aiding Japan in their war effort.
However, by this year, the number of INA troops to stand trial became too large, and a decision was made to select officers accused of the worst allegations to be publicly tried at the Red Fort in Delhi.
At the same time, as the Indian National Congress has raised increasingly strong demands for Indian independence, the party has made the trial of the INA officers a major political issue in recent weeks.
The violence began on 21 November when students, supported by members of both the Congress Party and the Muslim League, announced a demonstration and march against the INA trials through Wellington Square, along Dharamatala Street, to Dalhousie Square, and past the Government House. However, police blocked areas around Dalhousie Square and the Government House.
The crowd of around 7,000 clashed with police when they arrived, and the officers responded with a baton charge, to which the crowd attacked the police officers with bats and bottles, simultaneously chanting anti-British and pro-Indian independence slogans.
Some police responded by opening fire late last night, killing two of the demonstrators and wounding as many as 60.
Yesterday, the citizens of Calcutta responded with a demonstration, with upwards of 100,000 people forming in the areas around the Government House. Rioters attacked military trucks and police cordons and halted all city traffic.
Although the Governor of Bengal, Richard Casey, ordered the police and military to adhere to a strict non-intervention policy, further shootings occur today, raising the number of killed to almost 40 and injured to almost 200 by the end of the day.
Picture: Police in action against Hindus in the 1946 Calcutta riots
Source: Getty Images
On 22 November 1945, the Hollywood Canteen, a beloved wartime venue that provided entertainment and hospitality for Allied servicemen and women, opens and closes for the last time.
Located at 1451 Cahuenga Boulevard in Hollywood, California, the canteen had become a cherished institution for U.S. troops during the war, embodying the spirit of unity, patriotism, and gratitude that characterized the home front. During its three years of operation, the Hollywood Canteen served over three million servicemen and women.
It was founded in October 1942 by Bette Davis, John Garfield, and Jules Stein, with the mission of offering free food, entertainment, and relaxation to members of the Allied forces. Open every evening, the venue welcomed any serviceman or servicewoman in uniform, regardless of rank or nationality.
The canteen operated entirely on donations and the efforts of volunteers, most of whom were Hollywood stars, musicians, and industry professionals. These volunteers served food, danced with guests, and performed on stage, creating an unforgettable atmosphere for the troops. Stars such as Marlene Dietrich, Bob Hope, Judy Garland, and Frank Sinatra were regular contributors.
At the height of its activity, the Hollywood Canteen welcomed as many as 2,000 servicemen each night. It became a cultural landmark, offering troops a unique experience where they could enjoy live performances, rub shoulders with celebrities, and momentarily escape the realities of war. For many soldiers, especially those far from home, it was a source of profound comfort and joy.
The canteen has also played a role in breaking down social barriers and welcoming all service members equally, regardless of race.
By the beginning of this month, however, with its mission essentially complete, the canteen prepared to end operations.
Today, on Thanksgiving Day, the Canteen closes its doors for the last time after some 5,000 troops flow in and out throughout the day and evening, enjoying turkey dinners and entertainment.
Picture: Marlene Dietrich and Rita Hayworth serving food to soldiers at the Hollywood Canteen
Source: Library of Congress
On 20 and 21 November 1945, the trial of top Nazi political, economic, and military leaders by the International Military Tribunal (IMT) begins at the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg, Germany.
Of the 24 accused, the full names, functions, and ranks of whom you can read in our 29 August post, 21 defendants are physically present, as three—Robert Ley, Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, and Martin Bormann—are absent. Ley had committed suicide in custody on 24 October. Krupp has been deemed medically unfit, and Bormann is to be tried in absentia as his whereabouts are yet to be determined.
Yesterday, the tribunal was formally convened under the presidency of Lord Justice Geoffrey Lawrence of Britain.
Today, Justice Robert H. Jackson, Chief U.S. Prosecutor, delivers the opening statement, describing the trial as a precedent-setting event to hold individuals accountable for crimes against international law. Jackson’s words underscore the significance of the trial: "The wrongs which we seek to condemn and punish have been so calculated, so malignant, and so devastating, that civilization cannot tolerate their being ignored."
The charges are read to the accused, and each defendant is given the opportunity to plead.
All of the defendants plead not guilty.
Their responses vary in tone and content. Göring defiantly claims the court lacked jurisdiction, Hess bizarrely insists he has amnesia and cannot remember his involvement, and Streicher denies responsibility for the Holocaust despite his inflammatory propaganda. Others, like Keitel, deflect blame onto Hitler, portraying themselves as mere subordinates following orders.
Despite these denials, the evidence against them is substantial, indeed setting the stage for a lengthy and detailed prosecution.
Picture: View of the defendants in the dock at the International Military Tribunal trial of war criminals in Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany.
Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
